Cognitive Development in Infancy through Adolescence
Social Constructivism
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist whose sociocultural theory emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the development of cognitive abilities. Vygotsky differed from Piaget in that he believed a person has not only a set of abilities but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized with proper guidance from others. Vygotsky developed theories on teaching that have been adopted by educators today.
Like Piaget, Vygotsky acknowledged intrinsic development, but he argued that it is the language, writing, and concepts arising from culture that elicit the highest level of cognitive functioning (Crain, 2005). He believed that social interactions with teachers and more knowledgeable peers could enhance a learner’s potential to learn. Without this interpersonal instruction, he believed learners’ minds would not advance very far, as their knowledge would be based only on their own discoveries.
Figure 1. Lev Vygotsky
Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding
Vygotsky’s best-known concept is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD has been defined as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). Vygotsky stated that learners should be taught in the ZPD. A good teacher or more-knowledgable-other (MKO) identifies a learner’s ZPD and helps them stretch beyond it. Then the MKO gradually withdraws support until the learner can perform the task unaided. Other psychologists have applied the metaphor of scaffolds (the temporary platforms on which construction workers stand) to Vygotsky’s theory. Scaffolding is the temporary support that an MKO gives a learner to do a task.
Figure 2. Model of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development.
Thought and Speech
Do you ever talk to yourself? Why? Chances are, this occurs when you are struggling with a problem, trying to remember something, or feeling very emotional about a situation. Children talk to themselves, too. Piaget interpreted this as egocentric speech or a practice engaged in because of a child’s inability to see things from another’s point of view. Vygotsky, however, believed that children talk to themselves to solve problems or clarify their thoughts. As children learn to think in words, they do so aloud, referred to as private speech, speech meant only for oneself. Eventually, thinking out loud becomes thought accompanied by internal speech, and talking to oneself becomes a practice engaged in only when we are trying to learn or remember. This inner speech is less elaborate than the speech we use when communicating with others (Vygotsky, 1962).
Vygotsky’s Influence on Education
Video 1. Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory introduces the applications of the theory in the classroom. Vygotsky’s theories have been extremely influential for education. Although Vygotsky himself never used the term scaffolding, it is often credited to him as a continuation of his ideas about how adults and other children can use guidance to help a child work within their ZPD. (The term scaffolding was first developed by Jerome Bruner, David Wood, and Gail Ross while applying Vygotsky’s concept of ZPD to various educational contexts.)
Educators often apply these concepts by assigning tasks that students cannot do on their own but can do with assistance. They should provide just enough assistance so that students learn to complete the tasks independently, and then create an environment that enables students to tackle harder tasks than would otherwise be possible. Teachers can also allow students with more knowledge to assist students who need more guidance. Especially in collaborative learning, group members with higher levels of understanding can help less advanced members learn within their zone of proximal development.
Contrasting Paget and Vygotsky
Piaget was highly critical of teacher-directed instruction, believing that teachers who take control of the child’s learning place the child into a passive role (Crain, 2005). Furthermore, teachers may present abstract ideas without the child’s true understanding, and instead, the child simply repeats what they heard. Piaget believed children must be given opportunities to discover concepts on their own. As previously stated, Vygotsky did not believe children could reach a higher cognitive level without instruction from more learned individuals. Who is correct? Both theories certainly contribute to our understanding of how children learn.
